Experimental Stage (1885–1919)

1. Swadeshi Movement (Partition of Bengal, 1905)

• Cause: British “Divide and Rule” through Bengal partition.
• Consequence: Partial reversal in 1911; created precedent for boycott.
• Effect: Limited to merchants and consumers; inspired later Non-Cooperation.
• Participants: Merchants, urban middle-class, some students.
• Urban/Rural: Predominantly urban.
• Propaganda: Speeches, newspapers, patriotic songs, promotion of indigenous goods.
• External Factors: British economic dominance in textile trade.

2. Revolutionary Terrorism (1908–1909)

• Cause: Frustration at limited results of petitions and boycotts.
• Consequence: Repression; alienated moderates; remained fringe.
• Effect: Symbolic defiance; little real policy impact.
• Participants: Small groups of radical youths, mostly educated elites.
• Urban/Rural: Urban centers (e.g., Calcutta, London).
• Propaganda: Secret networks, underground literature.
• External Factors: Access to firearms, ideas from European anarchists.

3. Home Rule Movement (1916–1918)

• Cause: Growing demand for self-government during WWI.
• Consequence: Montagu Declaration (1917) promising future reforms.
• Effect: First nationwide political campaign, spread political literacy.
• Participants: Urban elites (Tilak, Besant), extended to educated villagers. ~60,000 supporters.
• Urban/Rural: Both; branches established in towns and villages.
• Propaganda: Lectures, pamphlets, newspapers.
• External Factors: Britain’s war dependence on Indian loyalty.

---

Mature Stage (1919–1947)

4. Khilafat–Non-Cooperation Movement (1919–1924)

• Cause: Defense of Ottoman Caliphate + anger at Rowlatt Acts + Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Consequence: Mass mobilization but collapse after violence (Chauri Chaura, 1922).
• Effect: INC gained Muslim support; widened base beyond elites; turned religion into political tool.
• Participants: Urban professionals, artisans, peasants, women, students.
• Urban/Rural: Both; rural tax refusal linked villages.
• Propaganda: Khadi promotion, speeches, religious appeals, mass meetings.
• External Factors: Ottoman defeat in WWI, global Muslim solidarity.

5. Civil Disobedience (1930–1934) – Salt March

• Cause: British monopoly on salt, symbol of everyday oppression.
• Consequence: Arrests of 60,000+; Round Table Conferences; some concessions but no independence.
• Effect: Showed power of peaceful defiance; globalized India’s struggle.
• Participants: Peasants, workers, students, women, Gandhi and elite leaders.
• Urban/Rural: Strong rural participation (salt making, tax refusal).
• Propaganda: Salt March as a symbol; press, foreign observers.
• External Factors: International press coverage; Depression weakened Britain.

6. Quit India Movement (1942)

• Cause: Frustration with Britain’s refusal to grant immediate independence during WWII.
• Consequence: Harsh repression, but Britain recognized independence inevitable post-war.
• Effect: Unified demand for complete independence; climax of mass protest as the last major protest.
• Participants: Peasants, workers, students, women, local leaders; Gandhi and INC top brass arrested early.
• Urban/Rural: Predominantly rural uprisings, sabotage of transport, communication.
• Methods: form of parallel government in some provinces; mass violence; destruction of infrastructure like telegram line
• Propaganda: “Do or Die” slogan, underground radio, leaflets.
• External Factors: WWII context, Japan’s advance in Asia, Britain’s weakness.

---

Overall Pattern

• Cause: From colonial partitions and economic grievances → global war contexts.
• Consequence: From symbolic concessions (1917) → full independence (1947).
• Effect: Fragmented to systematic, elite-only to mass participation.
• Participants: Shift from urban elites → nationwide civilian base.
• Urban/Rural: Initially urban → later rural backbone.
• Propaganda: From pamphlets/songs → symbolic acts (Salt March), slogans, global media.
• External Factors: Wars (WWI, WWII), Ottoman collapse, British economic decline.